New England English
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New England English is, collectively, the various distinct dialects and varieties of
American English American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of variety (linguistics), varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the Languages of the United States, most widely spoken lan ...
originating in the
New England New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
area. Most of eastern and central New England once spoke the " Yankee dialect", some of whose accent features still remain in eastern New England today, such as "R-dropping" (though this feature is now receding among younger speakers). Accordingly, one linguistic division of New England is into
Eastern Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...
versus
Western New England English Western New England English refers to the varieties of New England English native to Vermont, Connecticut, and the western half of Massachusetts; New York State's Hudson Valley (from Albany to Poughkeepsie) also aligns to this classification. S ...
, as defined in the 1939 ''
Linguistic Atlas of New England The ''Linguistic Atlas of New England'' (LANE), edited by Hans Kurath in collaboration with Miles L. Hanley, Bernard Bloch, Guy S. Lowman, Marcus L. Hansen and Julia Bloch, is a book of linguistic maps describing the dialects of New England in t ...
'' and the 2006 '' Atlas of North American English'' (ANAE). The ANAE further argues for a division between Northern versus Southern New England English, especially on the basis of the
cot–caught merger The ''cot''–''caught'' merger or merger, formally known in linguistics as the low back merger, is a sound change present in some dialects of English where speakers do not distinguish the vowel phonemes in "cot" and "caught". "Cot" and "caug ...
and fronting (applying twice, for example, in the phrase ''Park the car''). The ANAE also categorizes the strongest differentiated New England accents into four combinations of the above dichotomies, simply defined as follows: * Northeastern New England English shows non-rhoticity, the cot–caught merger, and strong fronting. It centers on Boston, Massachusetts, extending into New Hampshire and coastal Maine. * Southeastern New England English shows non-rhoticity, no cot–caught merger, and no strong fronting. It centers on Providence, Rhode Island and the
Narragansett Bay Narragansett Bay is a bay and estuary on the north side of Rhode Island Sound covering , of which is in Rhode Island. The bay forms New England's largest estuary, which functions as an expansive natural harbor and includes a small archipelago. Sma ...
. * Northwestern New England English shows rhoticity, the cot–caught merger, and strong fronting. It centers on Vermont. * Southwestern New England English shows rhoticity, no (or a transitional state of the) cot–caught merger, and no strong fronting. It centers around the Hartford-Springfield area of Connecticut and western Massachusetts.


Overview


Phonology


Distinctions

New England English is not a single American dialect, but a collective term for a number of dialects and varieties that are close geographic neighbors within New England, but which differ on a spectrum that broadly divides New England English into a unique north versus south (specifically, a northern merger of the and vowels, versus a southern merger of the and vowels), as well as a unique east versus west (specifically, an eastern pronunciation of the "r" sound only before vowels, versus a western pronunciation of all "r" sounds). Regarding the former feature, all of northern New England (most famously including Boston, but going as far southeast as Cape Cod and as far north as central Maine) historically merges the
open Open or OPEN may refer to: Music * Open (band), Australian pop/rock band * The Open (band), English indie rock band * ''Open'' (Blues Image album), 1969 * ''Open'' (Gotthard album), 1999 * ''Open'' (Cowboy Junkies album), 2001 * ''Open'' (YF ...
and open-mid
back The human back, also called the dorsum, is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest and the abdomen. The vertebral column runs ...
rounded vowel In phonetics, vowel roundedness is the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. It is labialization of a vowel. When a ''rounded'' vowel is pronounced, the lips form a circular opening, and ''unrounded'' vowels are pron ...
s (so that, for instance, ''pond'' and ''pawned'' are pronounced the same, which is commonly called the
cot–caught merger The ''cot''–''caught'' merger or merger, formally known in linguistics as the low back merger, is a sound change present in some dialects of English where speakers do not distinguish the vowel phonemes in "cot" and "caught". "Cot" and "caug ...
), while southern coastal New England (including Rhode Island) historically maintains a noticeable distinction between these two vowels. Regarding the second feature, all of eastern New England is historically non-rhotic (famously pronouncing "car" like "kah"), while all of western New England is historically rhotic (or "''r''-ful"). Therefore, four combinations of these two features are possible, and coincidentally all four exist among New England English speakers, largely correlated with the exact geographic quadrant in New England in which a speaker was raised.


Commonalities

All of New England raises the tongue in the first element of the
diphthong A diphthong ( ; , ), also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech o ...
before
voiceless consonants In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies v ...
, so ''writer'' has a raised vowel, with this often being its only distinguishing feature versus ''rider''. Eastern New England, specifically, also raises the first element of before voiceless consonants (commonly known as
Canadian raising Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
). The local dialects of New England are also known for commonly pronouncing the unstressed sequences and (for example, found in "sitting" or "Britain" ) with a glottal . While this form of ''t''-glottalization (especially the form) is found throughout the country (), a realization with a full
schwa In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa (, rarely or ; sometimes spelled shwa) is a vowel sound denoted by the IPA symbol , placed in the central position of the vowel chart. In English and some other languages, it rep ...
vowel is also a variant sometimes observed particularly among New Englanders, with reportings for instance in New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. It may, however, be a younger pronunciation variant nationwide (also reported in places as diverse as Utah, California, and New Jersey). The extent that speakers raise the tongue in the "short ''a''" vowel, or vowel, varies in New England; however, across the board, New Englanders demonstrate a definite "nasal" short-''a'' system, in which the vowel is always raised the absolute strongest whenever occurring before the nasal consonants and (so that, ''pan'', for example, nearly approaches the sound of the word ''
paean A paean () is a song or lyric poem expressing triumph or thanksgiving. In classical antiquity, it is usually performed by a chorus, but some examples seem intended for an individual voice ( monody). It comes from the Greek παιάν (also πα ...
''). In all of New England except Rhode Island, the short ''a'' may also be somewhat raised in many other environments, similar to the
Great Lakes region The Great Lakes region of North America is a binational Canadian–American region that includes portions of the eight U.S. states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin along with the Canadian p ...
. Certain words have a tendency to use a distinct phoneme when compared against the rest of the country: for example, ''aunt'' as , the noun ''route'' as , and ''syrup'' as .


Vocabulary

The following terms originate from and are used commonly and nearly exclusively throughout New England: *''grinder'' for '' sub'', a long, large sandwich (with ''Italian sandwich'' specific to Maine English) *''hamburg'' as a largely older term for ''
hamburger A hamburger, or simply burger, is a food consisting of fillings—usually a patty of ground meat, typically Ground beef, beef—placed inside a sliced bun or bread roll. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles ...
'' or ''
hamburger meat Ground beef, minced beef or beef mince is beef that has been finely chopped with a knife, meat grinder (American English), mincer or mincing machine (British English). It is used in many recipes including hamburgers, bolognese sauce, meatloaf, ...
'' *''package store'' or ''packie'' for ''
liquor store A liquor store is a retail shop that predominantly sells prepackaged liquors – typically in bottles – usually intended to be consumed off the store's premises. Depending on region and local idiom, they may also be called an off-licence (i ...
'' (predominant in Boston and Southern New England English) *''tag sale'' for ''
garage sale A garage sale (also known as a yard sale, tag sale, moving sale and by many other namesSome rarely used names include "attic sale," "basement sale," "rummage sale," "thrift sale," "patio sale," "lawn sale," and "jumble sale".) is an informal ...
'' or ''yard sale'' (predominant in Southwestern New England English) *''rotary'' for ''
traffic circle A roundabout is a type of circular intersection (road), intersection or junction in which road traffic is permitted to flow in one direction around a central island, and priority is typically given to traffic already in the junction.''The N ...
'' or ''
roundabout A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic is permitted to flow in one direction around a central island, and priority is typically given to traffic already in the junction.''The New Shorter Oxford En ...
'' *''wicked'' is used as an intensifier word, common before adjectives or adverbs (predominant in Northern and Eastern New England English, famously Boston). As in the rest of the Northeast, ''sneakers'' is the primary term for ''
athletic shoes Sneakers (also called trainers, athletic shoes, tennis shoes, gym shoes, kicks, sport shoes, flats, running shoes, or runners) are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but which are now also widely used fo ...
'', ''tractor trailer'' for ''
semi-trailer truck A semi-trailer truck, also known as a semitruck, (or semi, eighteen-wheeler, big rig, tractor-trailer or, by synecdoche, a semitrailer) is the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers to carry freight. A semi-trailer ...
'', ''cellar'' for ''
basement A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are completely or partly below the ground floor. It generally is used as a utility space for a building, where such items as the furnace, water heater, breaker panel or fuse box, ...
'', ''brook'' is common for ''stream'', and ''soda'' is any sweet and bubbly non-alcoholic drink. Many Boston-originating local terms have dispersed throughout Eastern New England and, prominently, all the rest of Massachusetts.


Eastern New England English

Eastern New England English encompasses
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
and Maine accents, and, according to some definitions, the distinct Rhode Island accent. All Eastern New England English is famous for non-rhoticity, meaning it drops the ''r'' sound everywhere except before a vowel: thus, in words like ''car'', ''card'', ''fear'', and ''chowder'' (). The phrase ''Park the car in Harvard Yard''—dialectally transcribed —is commonly used as a
shibboleth A shibboleth (; hbo, , šībbōleṯ) is any custom or tradition, usually a choice of phrasing or even a single word, that distinguishes one group of people from another. Shibboleths have been used throughout history in many societies as passwor ...
, or speech indicator, for the non-rhotic Eastern New England dialect running from Boston north to Maine, and as far west as
Worcester Worcester may refer to: Places United Kingdom * Worcester, England, a city and the county town of Worcestershire in England ** Worcester (UK Parliament constituency), an area represented by a Member of Parliament * Worcester Park, London, Engla ...
, which contrasts with the rhotic dialects in the vast majority of North America. In all of Eastern New England, except Rhode Island, words like ''caught'' and ''cot'' are pronounced identically (both are often rounded, thus: ), because those two vowel sounds have fully merged. A phenomenon called
Canadian raising Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
occurs throughout Eastern New England, causing ''writer'' to have a different stressed vowel sound than ''rider'', and for the verb ''house'' to have a different vowel sound than the noun ''house''. and have relatively back starting positions. The ''horse''–''hoarse'' distinction is still present to some extent in some areas, as well as the ''Mary''–''marry''–''merry'' distinction in many speakers.


Western New England English

Western New England English encompasses the accents of Vermont, western Massachusetts, and Connecticut. These accents are fully rhotic, meaning all ''r'' sounds are pronounced, as in most of North America. Here, and have slightly fronted starting positions, and the
Mary–marry–merry merger In English, many vowel shifts affect only vowels followed by in rhotic dialects, or vowels that were historically followed by that has been elided in non-rhotic dialects. Most of them involve the merging of vowel distinctions and so fewer vowe ...
and
horse–hoarse merger In English, many vowel shifts affect only vowels followed by in rhotic dialects, or vowels that were historically followed by that has been elided in non-rhotic dialects. Most of them involve the merging of vowel distinctions and so fewer vow ...
are fully complete. Western New England English exhibits the entire continuum of possibilities regarding the
cot–caught merger The ''cot''–''caught'' merger or merger, formally known in linguistics as the low back merger, is a sound change present in some dialects of English where speakers do not distinguish the vowel phonemes in "cot" and "caught". "Cot" and "caug ...
: a full merger is heard in its northern reaches (namely, Vermont) and a full distinction at its southern reaches (namely, coastal Connecticut), and a transitional area in the middle. Western New England English is closely related to and influential on, but more conservative (i.e. preserving more historical features) than, the Inland North dialect which prevails farther west, and which has altered away from Western New England English due to an entirely new chain shift of the vowels since the 1900s. Some Western New England English speakers do have these shift's features, though it is not yet fully understood if and how New England directly influenced the
Inland North Inland Northern (American) English, also known in American linguistics as the Inland North or Great Lakes dialect, is an American English dialect spoken primarily by White Americans in a geographic band reaching from the major urban areas of U ...
dialect region.McCarthy, Corrine (2010)
The Northern Cities Shift in Real Time: Evidence from Chicago
. ''University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics'': Vol. 15 : Iss. 2, Article 12.


See also

*
Boston accent A Boston accent is a local accent of Eastern New England English, native specifically to the city of Boston and its suburbs. Northeastern New England English is classified as traditionally including New Hampshire, Maine, and all of eastern Mass ...
* Maine accent * New England French * North American English regional phonology § New England *
Regional accents of English speakers Spoken English shows great variation across regions where it is the predominant language. For example, the United Kingdom has the largest variation of accents of any country in the world, and therefore no single "British accent" exists. This ar ...
*
Regional vocabularies of American English Regional vocabulary within American English varies. Below is a list of lexical differences in vocabulary that are generally associated with a region. A term featured on a list may or may not be found throughout the region concerned, and may or ...


References


Further reading

* Stanford, James. 2019. New England English: Large-scale acoustic sociophonetics and dialectology. Oxford University Press. 367 pages. * *


External links

* * {{English dialects by continent American English Connecticut culture
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
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